Mutations

Mutations refer to the changes in the genetic material of a cell that alter phenotypes and are the primary reason of genetic variation. Due to its presence normal function and production are effected leading to different phenotypes. These changes/mutations can be large changes like chromosomal changes but also small changes in DNA's nucleotide structure such as substitution,, insertion or deletions. 

Small Scale Mutation

These small scale mutations are also referred as point mutations where there is a change in a single nucleotide pair of gene. Furthermore, substitution refers to the replacement of one nucleotide, silent  is when there is a change of code but still leads to the same amino acid, missense is a change where it causes a different amino acid, and finally nonsense is a change that leads to a stop codon.

Frameshift mutations

 This is when the reading frame of the genetic information is altered. For example, adding one person in a line will cause everyone behind that person to be one person behind, therefore changing everyone's order in line. This includes insertion the inserting of a nucleotide and deletion when a nucleotide is removed. 

Natural Selection is when a mutation occurs, but can sometimes increase the survival and reproduction of an organism

Horizontal gene transfer This is a method that prokaryotes use to exchange genetic mutation which can lead to survival and reproduction. This includes transformation he uptaking of DNA from a nearby cell, transduction viral transmission of genetic material, conjugation which is the cell-to-cell transfer of DNA, and finally transposition which is the movement of DNA segments within and between DNA molecules.

Another example is PCR which is short for Polymerase chain reaction, a method used in molecular biology to make several copes of a specific DNA segment by making them amplified and results can be analyzed via gel electrophoresis

A final example of DNA sequencing which is the process of determining the order of nucleotides in DNA.